Rev. estud. psicol. (2024). Vol. 4 No. 3 pp. 7-27 | |
Revista Estudios Psicológicos https://estudiospsicologicos.com ISSN: 2788-6492 / E-ISSN: 2788-6506 Editada por: Instituto Universitario de Innovación Ciencia y Tecnología Inudi Perú | |
REVIEW ARTICLE |
Aspectos psicosociales de la violencia de género y su incidencia en el feminicidio: una revisión sistemática
Aspectos psicossociais da violência de género e sua incidência no femicídio: uma revisão sistemática
Nubia Hernández-Flórez1 Universidad Metropolitana de Barranquilla, Atlántico - Barranquilla, Colombia
nhernandezf@unimetro.edu.co (correspondencia) | |||
Olena Klimenko Institución Universitaria de Envigado, Antioquia - Envigado, Colombia
| Elisama Beltrán Universidad Metropolitana de Barranquilla, Atlántico - Barranquilla, Colombia
| ||
Johana Vásquez Universidad Metropolitana de Barranquilla, Atlántico - Barranquilla, Colombia
| Maria Orozco Universidad Metropolitana de Barranquilla, Atlántico - Barranquilla, Colombia
| ||
Francis Araque-Barboza Universidad Metropolitana de Barranquilla, Atlántico - Barranquilla, Colombia
|
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35622/j.rep.2024.03.001
Received: 15/04/2024 – Aceppted: 25/06/2024 – Published: 12/07/2024
KEYWORDS | ABSTRACT. Introduction: research in the field of gender violence and femicide indicates a marked interest on the part of collectives, professionals, and entities working in defense of human rights. The risk factors associated with this phenomenon have psychological, social, political, and |
1 PhD in Education Sciences from Universidad Cuauhtémoc, Mexico.
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gender violence, femicide, abuse, discrimination, inequality, inequality. | economic repercussions that have contributed to gender inequality and discrimination based on the norms of patriarchal cultures. Methodology: a systematic review of the literature was conducted using Boolean equations, searching across three databases (Proquest, ebscohost, and Wos Clarivate). Results: it was found that various forms of violence against women increase the likelihood of behavioral alterations, as well as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress, or psychotic disorders. Moreover, various social, economic, and cultural barriers embedded in society limit the eradication of this issue. Conclusions: gender violence has physical and mental effects that negatively impact the comprehensive health of the victims, affecting short, medium, and long- term mental stability and diminishing quality of life. |
PALABRAS CLAVE violencia de género, feminicidio, abuso, discriminación, desigualdad. | RESUMEN. Introducción: las investigaciones en el campo de la violencia de género y el feminicidio denotan un interés marcado por parte de los colectivos, profesionales y entidades que trabajan en pro de defensa de los derechos humanos. Los factores de riesgo asociados a este fenómeno presentan secuelas a nivel psicológico, social, político y económico que han contribuido a la desigualdad de género y discriminación basados en las normas de las culturas patriarcales. Metodología: se realizó una revisión sistemática de la literatura, mediante la formulación de las ecuaciones boolenas, realizando la búsqueda en tres bases de datos (Proquest, ebscohost y Wos Clarivate. Resultados: se encontró que las diferentes expresiones de violencia en contra de las mujeres aumentan las posibilidades de presentar alteraciones del comportamiento, como también ansiedad, depresión, estrés postraumático, o trastornos psicóticos. Además, las diferentes barreras sociales, económicas y culturales que se encuentras impregnadas en la sociedad y que limitan la erradicación de esta problemática. Conclusiones: la violencia de género presenta afectaciones físicas y mentales que repercuten negativamente en la salud integral de las víctimas, lo que incide en las afectaciones a corto, mediano y largo plazo en la estabilidad mental y el detrimento de la calidad de vida. |
PALAVRAS-CHAVE violência de gênero, feminicídio, abuso, discriminação, desigualdade. | RESUMO. Introdução: as pesquisas no campo da violência de gênero e feminicídio denotam um interesse marcado por parte dos coletivos, profissionais e entidades que trabalham em prol da defesa dos direitos humanos. Os fatores de risco associados a este fenômeno apresentam sequelas em nível psicológico, social, político e econômico que contribuíram para a desigualdade de gênero e discriminação baseadas nas normas das culturas patriarcais. Metodologia: foi realizada uma revisão sistemática da literatura, através da formulação de equações booleanas, realizando a busca em três bases de dados (Proquest, ebscohost e Wos Clarivate). Resultados: verificou-se que as diferentes expressões de violência contra as mulheres aumentam as possibilidades de apresentar alterações comportamentais, assim como ansiedade, depressão, estresse pós-traumático ou transtornos psicóticos. Além disso, as diferentes barreiras sociais, econômicas e culturais que estão impregnadas na sociedade e que limitam a erradicação desta problemática. Conclusões: A¿a violência de gênero apresenta afetações físicas e mentais que repercutem negativamente na saúde integral das vítimas, o que incide nas afetações a curto, médio e longo prazo na estabilidade mental e no detrimento da qualidade de vida. |
Rev. estud. psicol. Vol. 4. No. 3 (2024) pp. 7-27
INTRODUCTION
Gender is defined as a social construct, which refers to the behaviours, roles, and expectations created to comprehend and shape societal norms considered suitable for men and women (World Health Organization [WHO], 2019). However, discussions around gender extend beyond the traditional dichotomy between the two sexes, giving rise a diverse spectrum of gender identities and expression formed through social and cultural dynamics (Toro et al., 2017). This perspective suggests that gender is a performative construction historically rooted in societal norms and expectations, with a focus on power dynamics established in society (Ortiz et al., 2020).
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Gender-based violence is defined as any form of violence that causes physical, sexual, economic, or psychological harm to a woman’s life, including threats or arbitrary deprivation of liberty (Puente-Martínez et al., 2016). This violence can occur in both public and private spheres, emphasizing that is rooted in the victim´s gender. At the pinnacle of gender-based violence is feminicide, a concept established in recent years to denote the killing of a woman slowly because she is a woman (Gonçalves, 2020). While the classification may vary depending on the jurisdiction of the country and the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator, all instances underscore the oppressions women continue to face in society and highlight inequalities ingrained in power dynamics and social structures. Therefore, it is crucial to approach and understand this issue from a scientific perspective (García-Díaz et al., 2018).
According to WHO (2023), one in three women has experienced some form of violence from an intimate partner. These types of assaults begin at a very young age, with an estimate that by around the age of fifteen, some women have encountered various forms of violence. In Latin America, the violence rate is at 25% and according to the latest report from the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (CEPAL, 2023). Brazil had the highest record of feminicides. According to the Organization of American States, there were a total of 1437 victims in Brazil, followed by Mexico with 976 feminicides. The third highest country in reporting significant figures was Argentina which documented a total of 232 femicides, and Colombia ranked fourth with a total of 215 feminicides.
Based on the report published by CEPAL, an update of figures is conducted using information from government report of each country in 2022, providing an overview of the general panorama of gender-based violence in Latin America. The available statistics reveal an alarming reality, with official data from various sources presenting a concerning picture. In Brazil, for instance, the reported figure is 1,437 according to the report delivered by the Brazilian Public security forum, where 53% of the cases were committed by an intimate partner and 19% by and ex-partner (Equipe Fórum Brasileiro De Segurança Pública, 2023).
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In Mexico, UN Women reports that between January and September 2022, there were 976 cases of feminicide. In Argentina, the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation and the National Feminicide Registry reported 232 feminicides, of which 59% were perpetrated by the victim´s partner or ex-partner, totalling 252 cases of gender- based violence affecting 219 women and 7 transgender or transvestite women (WHO, 2023). In the case of Colombia, bulletin 280-2023 from the of the Attorney General of the Nation reported 215 feminicides in the year 2022. The afore mentioned figures underscore a significant and concerning increase in this crime due to the COVID-19 pandemic, despite various policy proposals and actions implemented by different governments (CEPAL, 2023).
Despite efforts by various governments to create public policies and laws, the patterns and factors perpetuating this issue, significantly affecting the integrity and lives of women, have not been sufficient to address this reality (Damonti & Leache, 2019). Therefore, throughout this article, we will also discuss the progress in each country especially in Latin America, along with the perspective analyses and results of the implemented policies aimed at countering this phenomenon (Rodríguez & Cordona-Iñesta, 2020). Additionally, we will explore various perspectives from the humanities that contribute to this type of violence, such as the patriarchal and sexist social structure, which is visible in different social and cultural norms, The existing gap of economic inequality and power between genders that leads to abuse and control by the male figure., lack if education and awareness
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regarding gender issues and the blatant impunity and deficiencies in the penal systems of their countries (Verdiales, 2020).
The objective of this article is to analyse the causal relationship between gender-based violence and its impact on feminicide, examining the consequences and implications. Additionally, it includes a perspective on the legal and social responses that have been implemented to address this issue.
METHOD
The systematic review of the literature allows the generation of knowledge based on evidence, taking into account the results of scientific research, compiling information that is guided by the research question, and addressing the characteristics and specifications of the subject studied (Páramo, 2020). Following a rigorousness that allows to have an update of the subject. The synthesized information on the advances in the subject of gender violence and the incidence of femicide was identified. The contributions made allow us to identify the current status reported by primary research (Salcido et al., 2021).
The first phase consisted of the elaboration of the research question, which was determined as: What is the incidence of gender violence in femicide? Then, the inclusion and exclusion criteria were established, which allowed a systematic search describing the sources of information and the findings. Next, a review and selection of the studies were carried out based on the titles and summaries, executing an analysis through the use of the RefWorks program; consecutively, data extraction was carried out taking into account the sample, the data, and the context; finally, the phase of analysis and reporting of results was developed through the study variables (Barrios-Serna et al., 2021).
Bibliographic search
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The search was developed through the Boolean equations approach. The searches were conducted through Ebscohost, Proquest, and Wos Clarivate. Using the following search equation: (("gender identity"[MeSH Terms] OR ("gender"[All Fields] AND "identity"[All Fields]) OR "gender identity"[All Fields] OR "gendered"[All Fields] OR "gender s"[All Fields] OR "gendering"[All Fields] OR "genderized"[All Fields] OR "genders"[All Fields] OR "sex"[MeSH Terms] OR "sex"[All Fields] OR "gender"[All Fields]) AND ("violence"[MeSH Terms] OR "violence"[All Fields] OR "violence s"[All Fields] OR "violences"[All Fields]) AND ("impact"[All Fields] OR "impactful"[All Fields] OR "impacting"[All Fields] OR "impacts"[All Fields] OR "tooth, impacted"[MeSH Terms] OR ("tooth"[All Fields] AND "impacted"[All Fields]) OR "impacted tooth"[All Fields] OR "impacted"[All Fields]) AND ("femicide"[All Fields] OR "femicides"[All Fields])) AND ((ffrft[Filter]) AND (excludepreprints[Filter]) AND (humans[Filter])).
Next, the selection and inclusion of research results articles was carried out, where articles were eliminated using Refwords, which facilitates the identification of duplicate studies and those that did not have open access to full text, concretely obtaining the data (Barrios-Serna et al., 2021).
Inclusion criteria: Studies that specifically addressed the analysed variables of gender violence and femicide were included. We included empirical, longitudinal, cross-sectional, experimental, and quasi-experimental studies and research reports that explored the relationship between the variables studied. Research published in peer-reviewed journals was integrated, selecting the results of primary research, considering articles in
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Spanish and English, and finally, incorporating the results of any country or region that studied the variables in their thematic compression.
Exclusion criteria: Studies outside the date range of the last five years were excluded, except for studies reported in books, technical reports, and undergraduate and graduate degree works. Duplicate or overlapping studies were eliminated. Reports that did not demonstrate academic quality and lacked methodological rigor, making it difficult to understand and synthesize the information, were discarded.
The following is the flow chart used in the systematic review that included the database searches and the records made during the research process:
Figure 1
PRISMA flowchart
Records identified from*: Database (n = 3): Ebscohost = 347 | Records deleted before review: Duplicate records deleted (n = 124) Records deleted for other reasons (n = 98). | ||
Records reviewed (n = 486) | Excluded records** (n = 267) Excluded by researchers= 192 | |||
Studies included in the review (n=32)
Reports assessed for eligibility.
Reports assessed for eligibility (n = 75)
Excluded reports: (n =117) Criterion= not related to the object of study)
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Note. Taken from PRISMA 2020 flow diagram template for systematic reviews, from Page et al. (2021).
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RESULTS
Mental health and gender violence
The mental health affectation resulting from gender violence has been identified as a social and public health problem, which implies the analysis of the complexity of the phenomenon, taking into account that the typologies include violence (physical, sexual, economic, among others); which hurt the comprehensive health of the victims (Montoya, 2019). It has been identified that women who have been victims of violence usually present problems related to post-traumatic stress, behavioral disorders, anxiety, depression, substance abuse, in some cases experiencing psychotic episodes and suicidal ideation (Potts et al., 2021). The prolongation of the problems presents depersonalization, feelings of helplessness coupled with a devaluation as a person that affects human dignity (Pérez-Rey & Arenas-Tarazona, 2019).
Women who have been victims of gender-based violence experience negative interpersonal relationships and often express difficulties in the labor, social, and relational spheres (Oram et al., 2022). The conditions of inequality and power cause a detriment in the system of values and beliefs affecting the quality of life and psychological well-being, because the altered emotional states of battered women usually result in a mental disorder, due to the vulnerability of those who have been victims as a result of psychological trauma (Bonilla- Algovia et al., 2020). Likewise, they usually manifest feelings of guilt and shame that can be explained by the same victimization and mental health affectations in the experiences of inequality (Wagner et al., 2020).
Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide
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The psychosocial implications of socialization and culture often play a fundamental role in the incidence of gender violence, due to the fact that stereotypes have been transmitted from generation to generation (Garcia- Vergara et al., 2022). Presenting a justification of violence against women through the heteronormative cultural roots related to violent behaviors (Standish & Weil, 2021). The macho attitudes resulting from patriarchy generated a perception of male superiority based on the beliefs and attitudes that were historically presented towards women, presenting a close incidence related to gender violence, which fostered distorted beliefs through educational and psychological factors that led to an increase in the mistreatment of women. A psychosocial aspect that characterizes gender-based violence is related to the cycles of violence since they involve passing through different phases that clearly trigger fear, hopelessness, and emotional dependence of which women are victims, products of abusive relationships that generate difficulties in establishing the establishment of complaints and seeking help (Hall & Evans, 2020).
Stigmatization as a psychosocial process that is immersed in gender-based violence increases blaming factors and evidences the lack of support from society (Sorrentino et al., 2022). This contributes to the perpetuation of criminal acts that remain silent and unpunished and that promote gender inequality through the promotion of attitudes and behaviors that denote psychological detriment and perceived psychosocial vulnerability affecting freedom, equality, and human rights; normalizing abusive acts that are accompanied by secondary victimization caused by social structures that permeate the ease of harassment and perpetuate gender-based violence from social idealization and structures based on hierarchies of power, discrimination, and inequality (Bosch-Fiol & Ferrer-Perez, 2020).
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Gender inequality, impunity and lack of access to justice
Gender inequality, together with impunity and lack of access to justice, represents psychological, social, and cultural problems for women victims of gender-based violence that are manifested in power relations that show an imbalance between men and women (Gasana et al., 2021). This unequal distribution represents a stereotyping of gender roles that fosters the idea of women's inferiority and along with it the discriminatory treatment that limits women's access to protection and justice. In this sense, impunity is the main barrier to proposals for the eradication of gender-based violence. Gender biases are present within the systems of access to justice because impunity denotes a lack of confidence on the part of the victims in the legal and juridical systems that represent a challenge faced by women to eradicate gender-based violence (Tejavathi, 2022).
In Latin America, access to legal mechanisms and resources is fundamental for women to effectively use information, legal rights, and free access to justice services (Carvalho, 2021). These obstacles that women have to access an inclusive and restorative justice are part of the consecrated in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, which clearly specifies the right of women to live free of violence and in line with the Convention of Belem do Para that reflects the international consensus and Sustainable Development Goal 5 which refers to gender equality and aims to empower women and girls through economic growth and global development, reducing indicators of violence, sexual exploitation and inequality of unpaid work. Generating judicial guarantees and protections that are fundamental for the eradication of gender-based violence (Carrigan & Dawson, 2020). It should be noted that the IACHR specifically mentions that women victims of violence do not have access to effective judicial remedies that allow them to timely denounce the crimes and acts perpetrated, leaving evidence of the level of lack of protection and impunity that increases the violation of human rights (Marszalkowska, 2022).
The following are the results of the research advances on the subject, taking into account the systematic review methodology followed:
Table 1
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Synthesis of the findings from the articles
N | Variable/keyword crosses | Citation | Methodology | Results findings | Country/ city |
1 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide | (Isidro-Arias & Silva- Hernández, 2021) | Qualitative approach with a descriptive and descriptive and interpretative approach. | Women in Mexico have had recognition and increased participation in different scenarios, but some changes have not been well accepted by the patriarchal society since they are considered changes in behavior and awareness of the roles of women and men of participation of women and men. | Mexico |
2 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide | (Robayo- Escobar et al., 2020) | Inquiry of microdata from the Death Records contained in the Vital Statistics from 2002 to 2013. | Homicides of women in Colombia occur mainly in the age range of 20 to 29 years and Antioquia is the department with the highest number of recorded crimes. It is identified that the perpetrators come from the family environment and are categorized by the crime observatory as intimate homicides. | Colombia |
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3 | Gender inequality, impunity and lack of access to justice | (Gómez- Madrid, 2019) | Documentary review of the National Commission for the Prevention and Eradication of Violence against Women (Conavim). | It is concluded that a process of equal justice has not been identified in relation to women's security guarantees, which leads to the need for evaluation and follow-up mechanisms for the protection of women's security actions. | Mexico |
4 | Gender inequality, impunity and lack of access to justice | (Angulo- López, 2019) | Qualitative analysis with descriptive and interpretative approach. | Shows the controversies and tensions generated by the social risk related to impunity and the current control policies and exception categories created to fight femicides and violence against women with the principles and fundaments wherewith the criminal justice system and human rights operate in Mexico. | Mexico |
5 | Gender inequality, impunity and lack of access to justice | (Mtotywa et al., 2023) | Ecological system theory having 20 indicators relating to: microsystem – personal history and individual factors; mesosystem – interpersonal relationships; exosystem – community factors; macrosystem – societal factors; and chronosystem | Gender-based violence (GBVF) is a complex global issue, influenced by social, structural, and psychological factors. Unlike older theories, a comprehensive ecological framework considers personal, situational, and sociocultural aspects. South Africa faces a deeply rooted GBVF problem tied to customs and institutions, demanding validation through fieldwork. | South Africa |
6 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide. | (Dawson & Carrigan, 2005) | Sytematic review of database whose primary focus is femicide, the presence of SGRMIs in male- perpetrator/female- victim homicide | The study finds that multiple SGRMIs are prevalent in male-perpetrator/female-victim killings, distinguishing femicide as a distinct form of violence. However, data accessibility is limited due to missing information, highlighting concerns that data biases may endanger women and girls. The focus should shift towards prioritizing prevention in data collection over administrative government needs. | Canada |
7 | Mental health and gender violence | (Standish & Weil, 2021) | Qualitative analysis with descriptive and interpretative approach. | Underscores the connection between feminicide and suicide, particularly in the context of the COVID-19. Historically, suicides decreased during pandemics, the stress associated with the current situation may contribute to an increase in post pandemic suicides, especilly among women, due to factors such as employment insecurity, care labour, and support network | New Zealand |
8 | Gender inequality, impunity and lack of access to justice | (Hernández, 2021) | Methodological gaps in the existing literature (sampling size, selection bias, and reverse causality) are covered using an important nationally | VFR exposure leads to depression, increased alcohol and tobacco use. Children of VFR victims experience more recent health issues. High-income women access better healthcare and mental support, while poorer women face lower self-esteem, inadequate emotional support, and higher substance abuse. | Peru |
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representative sample (Demographic and Health Survey: N = 84,136) and the use of propensity score matching. | ||||||
9 | Psychosocial aspects associated | (Sorrentino et al., 2022) | Archive research on Italian femicide cases | The results regarding fatal risk factors comparisons across age groups showed the | Italy | |
with the incidence | in the last decade, by | existence of significant differences regarding | ||||
of gender violence | comparing prior types | both types of violence suffered prior to | ||||
and femicide | of violence suffered | femicide and motives for femicide. The results | ||||
and motives for | are discussed in terms of policy implication | |||||
femicide, which are considered crucial fatal | and intervention. | |||||
risk factors for femicide | ||||||
10 | Psychosocial aspects associated | (Belotti et al., 2021) | Quali-quantitative method. | The conclusions highlight the effective combination of femicide narrative, the | Argentina | |
with the incidence | Argentinean human rights tradition, and | |||||
of gender violence | Twitter usages in transforming violence | |||||
and femicide | against women into a general civic matter. | |||||
11 | Gender inequality, impunity and lack | (Haro-Lara et al., 2019) | Quali-quantitative methodbibliographic | Se evidencia que las muertes violentas no han sido producto de un de un encuentro | Ecuador | |
of access to justice | and documentary | esporádico entre la mujer y el victimario, si no | ||||
research based on data | que se trata de una necesidad de borrar la | |||||
collected from public | identidad de la mujer, la historia, y relaciones | |||||
and private institutions, | sentimentales que la caracterizan y la | |||||
and public and private | convierten. | |||||
institutions | ||||||
12 | Gender inequality, impunity and lack of access to justice | (Bosch-Fiol & Ferrer- Perez, 2020) | This article shows a review on intimate partner feminicide victims in Spain confirms low legal complaint rates due to victims limited understanding of abuse and risk. | Spain | ||
13 | Gender inequality, impunity and lack of access to justice | (Gómez- Monge, 2022) | Hermeneutic method: an analysis of texts is carried out in order to build up a recount of the conceptual path on gender violence and feminicidal violence. | It recognizes the why and wherefore of the criminalization of femicide as a tool to make the problem visible, highlighting the laudable tasks that have been promoted from the academy and the fields of opportunity that lie with respect to the implementation of efficient and effective strategies in praxis. | Mexico | |
14 | Psychosocial aspects associated | (Mejía- Hernández, | The present paper is based on critical | This paper purpose was to paramount the importance of raising awareness of the history | Mexico | |
with the incidence of gender violence | 2021) | discourse theory and Halliday’s (1978) | of femicide in Mexico and how last year women’s march unifies a large number of | |||
and femicide. | Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) to scrutinize the journalist’ | population, men and women, with the same aim. | ||||
article | ||||||
15 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide. | (Dino, 2022) | Research based on quantitative data taken from 93 verdicts of ‘femicide’ sentences which involved foreign or migrant victims and | The study confrms the way in which narrations produced in the “judicial feld” – despite the “distortions” afecting them (Dubé 2012; Gusfeld 1968) – prove to be rich sources for | Italy boza | 15 |
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qualitative aspects: gathered through expert interviews and the tales of violence against women in a verdicts’ judgemental sample of murders of foreign women | the knowledge of a phenomenon which, still today, sufers from a structural lack of data. | ||||
16 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide. | (Hall & Evans, 2020) | This thematic analysis applies a syndemic framework to 28 in- depth interviews with women in Santo André, Brazil. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim in Portuguese. Our analysis examined themes relating to IPV,community violence, substance use, and other individual experiences and community issues using syndemics as anorganizing framework. | Most participants described experiencing multiple social comorbidities including IPV, adverse childhood, community violence, family violence, and substance use. Adverse interactions included increased financial conflicts, a sense of isolation, and increased severity of violence due to substance use. Long term enhanced “disease” progression included injury, increased mental health symptoms, femicide, and death | Brazil |
17 | Mental health and gender violence | (Beck & Mohamed, 2021) | Qualitative approach with a descriptive and descriptive and interpretative approach. | Despite legislative changes and the establishment of new institutions, Guatemala's criminal justice system is marred by weaknesses that nullify reform impacts. These flaws cause individual, public, and institutional harm, hurting victims, diverting attention from social norms and violence against women and girls (VAWG), and eroding public trust in the system. | Guatemala |
18 | Mental health and gender violence | (Caman et al., 2022) | The present study is part of a larger project, in which adatabase called Forensic Homicide Database was manually created,incorporating all homicides in Sweden within a limitedtime frame (January 1st, 2007, through December 31st, 2009). | This article concludes the use of psychiatric services by IPF perpetators and their clinical characteristics is crucial fro identifying high- risk individuals and planning effective intervention. The study suggests opportunities for risk assessment and intervention, as some had recent contact with mental health services before the offense. | Sweden |
19 | Gender inequality, impunity and lack of access to justice | (Condry & Miles, 2023) | Analysis of Homicide Index data | This article concludes that drawing upon analysis of Homicide Index data and 57 case studies of parricide in the United Kingdom, we show that in many cases women are killed by their adult-aged mentally ill sons, within a broader context of ‘parental proximity’, | United Kingdom |
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maternal caregiving and intersectional invisibility, which ultimately renders them vulnerable to fatal violence. | |||||
20 | Mental health and gender violence | (Almeida et al., 2023) | descriptive research, in a qualitative approach. | The article concludes that the protection laws implemented in Mexico are not enough to guarantee the safety of women, since there has been an increase in domestic violence. | Brazil |
21 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide | (Dayan, 2021) | Analysis of national empirical findings of femicide. suicide in Israel in the years 2005-2015, excluding analysis of femicide- suicide cases that occurred in Gaza. | All perpetrators who committed femicide- suicide were male. Most perpetrators (76%) were still in an intimate relationship with the victim (current partners) when they committed the femicide-suicide, and only 24% were already estranged at the time of the event. | Israel |
22 | Gender inequality, impunity and lack of access to justice | (Zara et al., 2019) | Retrospective review of the database of records of the Institute of Forensic Medicine and the Morgue Archives of Turin. | These preliminary findings suggest that joint scientific, professional, and political efforts are paramount in order to address strategies aimed at assessing the differential risk of IPV early in time so as to prevent it from escalating into IPF or NPF and to provide the appropriate support for victims and their families. | Italy |
23 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide. | (Anavatan & Kayacan, 2023) | The contribution of the study to the literature is that it estimates the relationship between femicides and macroeconomic variables with a method that incorporates the count data. The dataset was analyzed by using the INGARCH model. | The findings revealed that an increase in the female unemployment rate and a decrease in the male unemployment rate increases the number of femicide. In addition, it was observed that the number of femicide in the previous month had a negative efect on the current month’s number. Increasing the employment rate of women, and women’s economic freedom generally, are essential factors in reducing femicide. | Turkey |
24 | Mental health and gender violence | (Bermúdez & Meléndez- Domínguez, 2020) | Descriptive observational study (document analysis) selecting and analyzing data on the different modalities of GBV and femicides in the 28 EU countries. | It is concluded that psychological abuse is the most prevalent in the EU-28, however, there is a difficulty in comparing data from different countries due to the lack of a common legal conceptualization of GBV. | Spain |
25 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide. | (Tiscareño- García et al., 2022) | Quantitative research studies the content on femicide and gender violence in four Mexican national newspapers: La Jornada, Reforma, El Universal and Milenio during 2017. | Female sources criticize and question the official version of femicide, while male sources support it. Women also stand out as experts on the subject. In summary, the media use gender as a criterion to validate sources in the narrative of the news event. | Mexico |
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26 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide. | (Mishra, 2022) | Analytical review of the constitutive concepts associated with the practice of femicide. | Recognise and expostulate that symbolic connotations denote the prevalence of unfair and unjust state of affairs and the fact that physical violence is an embodied manifestation of these mundane state of affairs. | |
27 | Mental health and gender violence | (Abir & Zrizi, 2023) | Qualitative approach with a descriptive and descriptive and interpretative approach. | Historicizes the concept of hate crimes scrutinizing its relationship with VAW. It argues for the legal relabeling of violence against women (more particularly, femicide and rape) as subcategories of hate crimes, hence the urgency to a legal reform that would protect women worldwide from such a social plight. | Morocco |
28 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide. | (Messias et al., 2020) | Bibliographical review, with a view to using the studyof scientific, jurist opinion and legal texts | Despite significant strides in women's rights, a persistent physical disparity between men and women undermines material equality. This vulnerability has led to a rise in female homicides, often perpetrated by men due to disdain or discrimination against women. To address this issue, Brazil introduced Law nº 13.104/2015, incorporating the term "femicide" into the legal framework, distinguishing homicides related to domestic violence or gender-based discrimination against women. | Brazil |
29 | Gender inequality, impunity and lack of access to justice | (Velasco- Dominguez, 2023) | Qualitative approach with a descriptive and descriptive and interpretative approach. | Critical feminism questions the punitive state approach and the measures proposed by institutional feminism. It argues that these measures perpetuate gender stereotypes and simplify violence against women as the fault of individuals, ignoring its structural, social and institutional roots. | México |
30 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide. | (Alcocer- Perulero & Marchese, 2022) | Qualitative research - descriptive and documentary documentary analysis | It is necessary to create Analysis and Context units as part of the Comprehensive Program to prevent, punish, and eradicate violence against women. In addition, the program should elaborate a regulation and work methodology that will serve as a reference standard for the Analysis and Context Units of the different Prosecutor's and Attorney General's Offices. Context Analysis Units of the different Prosecutor's and Attorney General's Offices. | Portugal |
31 | Psychosocial aspects associated with the incidence of gender violence and femicide. | (Álvarez- Garavito & Acosta- González, 2021) | Economic approach that combines ideas proposed by Becker’s economics of crime and bargaining household models. | Legislation is suggested to deter femicide by increasing the likelihood of convicting and punishing perpetrators, altering their incentives. However, government inaction and impunity may hinder its effectiveness. Future analysis using a difference-in-difference method can assess the legislation's impact on femicide rates with more data. | Ecuador |
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32 | Gender inequality, impunity and lack of access to justice | (Carmona- Arias et al., 2023) | Qualitative analysis that takes up different aspects of secondary sources, doctrine, norms and jurisprudence. | It highlights the persistence of patriarchal violence evidenced by the constant rates of annual femicide and transfeminicide. It stresses that even trans women are not exempt from gender violence due to the symbolic construction of identities. It concludes that there is an urgent need to incorporate a gender and sexual diversity approach in the Colombian judicial system. | Colombia |
DISCUSSION
The increase in emotional alterations and the appearance of mental disorders in women victims of gender violence represent risk factors for integral health. The prevalence of anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress, psychotic disorders, and behavioral alterations increase to the extent that the type of violence established is related to the prevalence of the disorder (Velasco-Dominguez, 2023). Precipitating and predisposing factors in the face of precarious conditions associated with psychosocial vulnerability usually present greater social isolation, evidencing indicators of emotional distress that are reflected in submissiveness, impulsivity, addictive compartments, and subjective and social constructs that increase the probability of occurrence of mental illnesses (Moncayo et al., 2021).
The alteration of the emotional states of women victims of gender violence represents the physical, sexual, and mental abuse that is experienced when symptoms of mental disorders or illnesses are present (Tiscareño-García et al., 2022). Victims usually have difficulties in communication, self-perception, and altered expression of their emotions due to the manifestations of shame and guilt perpetrated by the perpetrator that evidence the psychological trauma and the aftermath of victimization that are identified with the presence of mental health affectations (Franchino-Olsen, 2021). This indicates that the presence of mental illness is a latent risk factor that increases the probability of causing a significant deterioration in the quality of life of women in the short, medium, and long term (Standish & Weil, 2021).
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Victims of violence frequently present depression, anxiety, panic attacks, psychotic outbreaks, suicidal ideation, and behaviors together with post-traumatic stress that evidence the psychological damage and the experience of violent events (Almeida et al., 2023). From the field of mental health, the gender perspective refers to situations of inequality generated by sociocultural factors related to healthy behaviors within the construction of sex and gender, as synergistic determinants that exacerbate the psychological vulnerabilities inherent to health care and public policies on gender and mental health (Abir & Zrizi, 2023). Socio-cultural environments often present significant stigmatization and risk for developing a mental disorder.
Psychoeducational processes that promote mental health in women victims of violence from a gender perspective, carry out an inclusive, equitable, and egalitarian promotion that reduces biases and encourages the promotion of opportunities for the development of areas of participation in science and technology that have traditionally been carried out by men (Mishra, 2022). Thus, social and economic gaps and political disparities concentrated in worse conditions for women and low salaries are reduced, generating discrimination that affects mental health by suffering inequitable and discriminatory treatment based on gender. Causing great consequences within the social interactions that denote an affectation in the psychological, cultural, and environmental aspects (Dayan, 2021; Standish & Weil, 2021).
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In this sense, gender-related inequities, taking into account the Sustainable Development Goals, specifically Goal 5, which proposes a process of gender equality and the empowerment of girls and women as a fundamental right. Taking into account that around the world the WHO reports that there are approximately 736,000,000,000 million women who have experienced physical or sexual violence at least once in their lives (Standish & Weil, 2021). Thus, the establishment of favorable frameworks for women presented in equal opportunities, better working conditions, non-discrimination factors, and respect for diversity and culture; requires financial support and the development of programs that encourage the participation of women in female empowerment, through training as a starting point to reduce social and gender gaps (Messias et al., 2020). The development of sports activities that make visible and promote the role of women in society, the construction of leadership, and comprehensive health care.
The social and cultural factors that are associated with gender violence have historically been associated with coercive upbringing patterns, the patriarchal system that denotes violence against women from a misogynist and sexist society, exercised from all spheres of life where gender-based stereotypes and religious-based beliefs were created to oppress women, making them invisible as human beings, denying them access to justice, abusing their rights and excluding them from educational, health and progress processes (Rivas-Rivero et al., 2020). The established norms and patriarchy led victims not to denounce sexual, emotional, and physical abuses that violate their human dignity and, in some cases, the consequence of these abuses has been femicide (Carrigan & Dawson, 2020).
The naturalization of violence against women through cultural factors led to the perpetuation of rape through the assignment of roles and submission of women to men. By establishing that patriarchy generated a vision of the weaker sex that led to women not exercising the rights, professions, activities, and trades assigned to men, women were considered as objects whose purpose was to sexually satisfy men, in a servile attitude without contradicting the norms and normalizing objectification, sexualization, abuse, rape, and murder (Tiscareño- García et al., 2022). This implies that culture continues to permeate behaviors that impede the personal fulfillment and the right to free will of women, generating a denigration of human dignity, and establishing the distinctive gaps in society as a result of stereotypes and oppressive behaviors. Therefore, gender violence has been associated with socially established archetypes that limit the actions of freedom and equity. Indifference to the reality of the phenomenon of misogyny and the heteronormative and gender-generic sex system as a social determinant (Valencia & Nateras, 2020).
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The manifestations of power relations that are presented as a relational imbalance at the level of sex reflect the inequitable relations associated with the establishment of gender roles and stereotypes. The fact that the right to equality and non-discrimination stipulated in the IACHR indicates a recognition of the criminal acts against women, the physical, psychological, and social consequences derived from gender-based violence against women, specifically stating that sexual violence has been the most used against women, and that from the standpoint of international humanitarian rights, The report also states that women's bodies have been instrumentalized as objects of war according to Anavatan & Kayacan (2023) where it refers to the violence exercised against women in internal armed conflicts, indicating a high maternal mortality rate as a result of forced abortion, forced sterilization, and the constant violation of human dignity as stipulated in article five of the convention (Álvarez-Garavito & Acosta-González, 2021).
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In this way, a pattern of systematic impunity has been identified in relation to actions to effectively prosecute and punish violence against women, which has increased the levels of distrust towards judicial systems and the administration of justice, resulting in a judicial ineffectiveness that disqualifies and blames them for their actions; contrary to protecting them as a governmental duty. The common vision of impunity and the absence of punishment denote the ineffectiveness of the actions that are enshrined in the penal system, presenting a punitive perspective that increases the culture of non-reporting, thus increasing discrimination and exclusion from a gender perspective that translates into the non-imposition of criminal sanctions and detonates indicators that break down barriers to access to justice, making invisible the aggressions and abuses of which women are victims.
CONCLUSIONS
Gender-based violence presents physical, psychological, social, and emotional affectations that require multidisciplinary attention as a priority because the victims within society have presented a violation of human rights and fundamental rights, where it has become evident that women are not treated with equality and dignity in all spheres of life. In this sense, gender-based violence is a structural problem that is rooted in social, cultural, economic, and psychological patterns that have allowed the generation of inequality and discrimination gaps that have led to the transformation of these actions into increased violence (Carrigan & Dawson, 2020). The elements of damage have shown that the established relationships have been presented under the submission of power, misogyny, the hetero-patriarchal system, and the rape culture that continues to allow the normalization of all types of violence, including torture, which is evidenced by the lack of access to restorative-compassionate and punitive justice, where the focus is on the victims and attempts are made to repair the damage by the perpetrators, either individually or collectively.
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The difficulty of accessing recent data and statistics does not allow for generating an updated and relational analysis between the information that should be reported by government institutions and the available documentary sources that reflect the reality of the studied phenomenon. This specifically indicates that there is a lack of attention and investment in economic and physical resources to counteract the latent problem of violence against women. This, in turn, hinders the work of professionals, academics, and researchers who work to eradicate violence from a gender perspective, hindering the evidence of the reality of crime rates, the causes and consequences, and the crimes that are still unsolved and, therefore, unpunished (Tiscareño-García et al., 2022). This generates victimization on the part of state entities, whose obligation is to be guarantors of the rights of citizens, especially women, due to the conditions of psychosocial vulnerability and the punitive power of the state.
It was established that mental health from a gender perspective presents social expectations that generate a negative impact on the mental health of the victims, due to the imposition of rigid roles, stigmatization, and discrimination experienced from the different types of violence that usually result in symptoms and psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, psychotic outbreaks, acute stress, which present clinically significant alterations in mental health, and from the perspective of public health requires comprehensive intervention and support for the victims in their recovery process (De Oliveira-Araujo et al., 2019). The importance of gender equity in mental health requires respectful inclusion processes that promote gender equity and challenge stereotypical inequalities to improve people's mental health. This implies addressing and guaranteeing access to inclusive health services that promote a more equitable and just society from a gender perspective.
Nubia Hernández-Flórez; Olena Klimenko; Elisama Beltrán; Johana Vásquez; Maria Orozco; Francis Araque-Barboza
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Los autores declaran que el presente proyecto no representó conflicto de intereses de ninguna parte.
Nubia Hernández-Flórez: Metodología, software, análisis formal, investigación, escritura – borrador original, escritura – revisión y edición, supervisión.
Olena Klimenko: Metodología, software, análisis formal, investigación, escritura – revisión y edición. Elisama Beltrán: Curación de datos, escritura – revisión y edición, visualización.
Johana Vásquez: Conceptualización, validación, recursos, supervisión. Maria Orozco: Conceptualización, validación, administración del proyecto, Francis Araque-Barboza: Curación de datos, adquisición de fondos.
Los autores declaran no haber incurrido en aspectos antiéticos, ni haber omitido aspectos legales en la realización de la investigación.
Las fuentes de financiación que dieron lugar a la investigación son de carácter personal y motivación profesional.
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